Mothers Trapped in Informal Employment | Madres atrapadas en la informalidad laboral

By Valentina H. Rubin de Celis, El Pais:

Between Caregiving and the Informal Economy

Between 70% and 85% of women work in the informal economy, meaning they lack job stability, health insurance, and retirement contributions. The situation becomes even more difficult when motherhood is added to the equation.

Madres atrapadas en la informalidad laboral

Care Work Is Essential, Yet Invisible

More than 70% of women in Bolivia work in the informal economy. In other words, seven out of ten women work without access to job stability, health insurance, or pension contributions. The situation worsens for mothers.

Other studies, such as those conducted by the Coordinadora de la Mujer, place the figure at 83% of the economically active female population, confirming the persistence of precarious working conditions for most women in the country. Their participation in the labor market occurs under highly vulnerable conditions, especially when they must balance paid work with caregiving responsibilities at home.

While much of the city sleeps, thousands of women in Tarija have already begun their day. They prepare breakfast, get their children ready for school, clean the house, and organize the day before heading out to sell goods in markets, fairs, plazas, or on the streets. Hours later, when they return home, their workday is far from over: they continue with household chores, help with school assignments, prepare dinner, and care for their families.

An Economy Sustained by Women

Today, nearly four out of ten households in Tarija are headed by women. According to data shared by Mariana Torres, communications specialist at the Alternative Communication Team with Women (ECAM), 39.2% of households in the department were headed by women in 2024.

Behind that economic responsibility, however, lies a less visible reality: women remain the primary caregivers for children, older adults, people with disabilities, and the overall maintenance of the household.

COLLABORATION: This report is the result of an educational collaboration between communication students from UPDS and El País.

“The care economy constitutes one of the main barriers to women’s access to and retention in formal employment,” explains Torres.

The data support that statement. According to the study Alli Cullqi: Economic Rights of Diverse Women in Bolivia, women devote an average of 39 hours per week to unpaid domestic and caregiving work, compared to 14 hours for men.

This means that, in addition to earning income, many women remain primarily responsible for cooking, cleaning, caring for children, helping with schoolwork, attending to sick or elderly relatives, and managing the day-to-day functioning of the household.

This overload of responsibilities reduces the time available to access formal jobs, receive training, or build a professional career. In fact, the same study found that 70% of women who are not seeking paid employment identify caregiving duties as the main reason. In other words, thousands of women remain outside the labor market not because they lack interest or qualifications, but because caregiving responsibilities fall almost exclusively on them.

Informality: An Immediate but Precarious Solution

For many mothers, informal work appears to be the only possible way to combine income generation with childcare.

“Informality becomes a form of economic autonomy, but also the only option for many women. The problem is that this choice means giving up basic rights such as healthcare and retirement benefits. It is not a long-term solution; many women are putting their old age and future at risk,” says Torres.

Most of these women work in activities such as selling clothing and food, street vending, agricultural work, or small family businesses.

According to the Alli Cullqi study, more than 70% of women earn less than 2,700 bolivianos per month, which corresponded to the national minimum wage until 2025. In addition, women earn between 25% and 30% less than men, a gap that can exceed 40% in rural areas.

Only three out of ten women have health insurance or contribute to a future pension.

“I Play the Role of Both Mother and Father”

Behind the statistics are real stories.

One market vendor, a mother of three daughters aged 13, 10, and an infant, has spent more than a decade working to support her family alone.

Her day begins by preparing breakfast and continues throughout the day at the market alongside her daughters. “I play the role of both mother and father,” she says.

She explains that she chose to remain in informal commerce because it allows her to stay close to her children. “I don’t dare work in something else because I feel I could neglect my children. Here I’m with them, whether it’s cold or hot,” she explains.

That decision, however, comes with sacrifices. During her last pregnancy, doctors advised her to rest, but she kept working. “I had to go out and work no matter what. I separated from my partner and was pregnant. I had to stay strong and keep going,” she recalls. She works seven days a week and has no health insurance, pension, or paid vacation.

Living Day to Day

Another woman interviewed has spent ten years selling candy in a city plaza. She has three children and became her household’s primary provider after her husband suffered an accident that left him unable to work.

Her day begins with household chores and extends until ten at night.

“You work to help your children move forward. That’s what motivates me,” she says.

When asked what it means to live day by day, she answers with a phrase that summarizes the reality of thousands of families:

“If you sell today, you eat today. If you don’t sell, you don’t.”

Researchers describe this “day-to-day logic” not as a lack of planning, but as a survival strategy in the face of permanent economic uncertainty.

Having a Thousand Hands

A third mother combines two jobs: cleaning work in the mornings and selling candy in a plaza in the afternoons. She has three children and is also the main economic provider of her household.

Her workday exceeds eleven hours. “There’s never enough time. You don’t know whether you’ll be working or caregiving. You need a thousand hands to do everything and make sure nothing is missing,” she says.

Although she recently secured a cleaning job, she continues selling candy because the income is insufficient. “Even with these two jobs, it’s not enough. I’m looking for another one.”

She summarizes the vulnerability of many informal workers in a single sentence: “If I get sick, there’s nothing. No food, no one to look after the children. Everything falls apart. I can’t afford to get sick.”

Invisible Work

The testimonies share one common theme: working does not simply mean earning money. Behind every workday lies another parallel workday that is rarely acknowledged but determines the time, opportunities, and decisions of thousands of women in Tarija and across Bolivia.

Mariana Torres explains that women constantly navigate two worlds. “Women live balancing caregiving work with market work that provides income.”

And when they cannot manage alone, they turn to other women. “Survival strategies rely on extended caregiving networks: sisters, mothers, mothers-in-law, aunts. Other women end up carrying the caregiving responsibilities so that they can continue producing income.”

According to ECAM data, two out of ten women take their children to work; another two rely on relatives for childcare; four use schools as the primary caregiving space during the day; and only one in ten can access private childcare services.

“Women do not go to work with peace of mind. If something happens, they feel the blame falls on them,” says Torres.

Better Educated, Yet Facing Fewer Opportunities

The paradox is clear. Despite advances in education, women continue to face structural barriers that limit their access to formal, stable, and better-paid employment.

The 2024 Census shows that women in Tarija have higher levels of higher education than men: 34.2% attained higher education, compared to 32.5% of men.

Yet this preparation does not translate into better employment opportunities.

“If we are the ones studying the most, that should be reflected in employment rates, but it is not,” Torres argues.

This creates a structural contradiction: women are more educated but more exposed to informality, underemployment, and interruptions in their careers due to unpaid caregiving responsibilities.

When Care Supports What the Economy Does Not See

Unpaid domestic and caregiving work represents between 16% and 25% of Bolivia’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), according to estimates from Alianza por la Solidaridad and the Plurinational Service for Women and Depatriarchalization (Sepmud).

Despite its enormous economic contribution, it remains largely invisible.

To address this situation, organizations working on the issue promote proposals based on the “3Rs”: recognize, redistribute, and reduce care work.

“First, we must recognize and measure it. Then redistribute it among the state, businesses, families, and society. Finally, reduce it through public care services and labor policies that promote shared responsibility,” explains Torres.

“We cannot talk about care without investment,” she adds.

Freeing Time to Achieve Equality

While debates about public policy continue, thousands of mothers remain supporting their households through informal work.

According to a recent study by CEDLA, more than 93% of women in Bolivia’s main cities perform unpaid domestic and caregiving work throughout their lives.

The question that remains is not how much women work, but how much longer the economy can continue relying on labor that remains invisible.

Because behind every market stall, every street vendor, and every mother returning home late at night, there is a common reality: they sustain families, communities, and a significant portion of the economy, yet they continue doing so under conditions that are still far from dignified.

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