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Study Warns That Bolivia Became a Hub for Drug Trafficking and Illicit Economies During MAS Governments

A study by the Fundación Milenio argues that between 2006 and 2025 the country strengthened networks linked to drug trafficking, illegal mining, money laundering, and transnational crime amid state weakness and institutional corruption.

El líder del MAS, Evo Morales, y el presidente, Luis Arce. ARCHIVO

Former presidents Evo Morales Ayma (2006–2019) and Luis Arce Catacora (2020–2025). Photo: Opinión

Bolivia consolidated during the last two decades a model of illicit economies tied to drug trafficking, illegal mining, and transnational criminal networks, according to the report “Bolivia: The Political Economy of Illicit Markets and Transnational Criminality,” prepared by researchers Henry Oporto and Ricardo Calla for Fundación Milenio.

The document, released by the institution a few days ago, argues that the country went from being mainly a producer of coca leaf and coca paste to becoming a “full producer and exporter of cocaine,” with international connections involving criminal organizations from Brazil, Mexico, Europe, and Colombia.

“The drug trade in Bolivia is now a vertically integrated industry (from coca fields to cocaine laboratories and export pipelines) run by local actors in collaboration with transnational criminal groups,” the report states.

The investigation argues that during the last two decades (2006–2025) the country endured “an autocratic, nationalist, and corporatist regime,” aligned with the leftist governments of the so-called “socialism of the 21st century”; while also forging very close relations with China, Russia, and Iran, powers interested in expanding their geoeconomic presence and geopolitical influence in Latin America and the Caribbean.

“A singular feature of the regime established in Bolivia in 2006 by indigenous leader Evo Morales and his party, the Movement Toward Socialism (MAS), was that it largely based its economic policy on the benefits derived from the drug trafficking industry, large-scale smuggling, and other flourishing illicit businesses, all with a marked transnational bias,” the document emphasizes.

A coca leaf plantation. Reference photo: El Deber

Family Clans and International Cartels

The study states that the drug trade in Bolivia ceased to depend on traditional hierarchical cartels and instead became structured through “fluid alliances” and networks of family clans managing cocaine production, logistics, and exportation. This evolution of the coca-cocaine economy reveals a substantial change in Bolivia’s role in the geopolitics of drugs.

According to the report, organizations such as Brazil’s Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC) and Comando Vermelho; the Mexican Sinaloa and Jalisco New Generation cartels; as well as the Clan del Golfo and European mafias, operate alongside Bolivian structures within global drug trafficking routes. “Bolivian clans not only supplied coca paste, but also crystallized cocaine hydrochloride within the country,” the investigation warns.

“The case of Bolivia illustrates the profile of the political economy of illicit markets. As is known, illicit economies tend to expand where state policies and structures create favorable opportunities, (…) allowing legal and traditional coca leaf markets to coexist with the diversion of coca toward cocaine production,” it notes.

The text adds that Bolivia became a “nodal point” of continental trafficking due to its geographic location, with routes toward Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, and Pacific ports used for illegal exports to Europe and Asia.

Destruction of a drug factory in the Chapare. Photo: FELCN

Chapare, Coca, and Union Control

One of the report’s central chapters analyzes the “social control” policy implemented beginning in 2006 during Evo Morales’ government, which allowed part of coca production to be legalized through the “catos” system. It acknowledges that the model initially reduced levels of violent confrontation and temporarily decreased illegal crops, but argues that coca production later ended up feeding the expansion of the cocaine industry.

The MAS government chose to increase the legal coca quota from 12,000 to 22,000 hectares “while occasionally raiding cocaine laboratories,” the document states, before asserting that Chapare coca growers’ unions assumed functions of parallel authority in the absence of the state. “It is union leaders who assign land, mediate disputes, and enforce communal rules,” the text says.

“In the absence of an effective state presence, an informal governance system has emerged that emphasizes collective rights and conflict resolution through local organizations. This, of course, has profound implications for cocaine trafficking: rather than being dominated by violent cartels, the drug economy would be intertwined with social and community structures,” it warns.

According to the investigation, Morales boasted about achievements in reducing raw coca leaf plantations while Bolivia migrated toward the transformation and export phase of cocaine production. Thus, after the expulsion of the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in 2008, cocaine laboratories proliferated, several of them under the control of foreigners attracted by the abundance of coca in the Chapare and the absence of police oversight.

Illegal mining affects snow-capped mountains such as Illimani in La Paz. Photo: El Diario

Illegal Mining and Money Laundering

Fundación Milenio also identifies illegal gold mining as one of the main emerging risks to national security and anti-money laundering efforts. The report estimates that 80% of informal mining is concentrated in gold and moves approximately $4 billion annually. “Many illegal mining ventures came to be financed by drug trafficking and money laundering,” the study warns.

The investigation argues that citizens and organizations of Chinese, Brazilian, Colombian, and Peruvian origin converge around this activity, mainly in Amazonian regions of La Paz, Beni, and Pando.

Corruption and Institutional Infiltration

The study devotes another section to the infiltration of drug trafficking into state institutions and security forces. “At least 30 police officers were investigated for drug trafficking crimes between 2022 and 2023,” the document states.

It also mentions reports about how clandestine cocaine flights were ignored and cases of judges and prosecutors who avoided investigating or sanctioning criminal structures. “The link between drug traffickers and state officials is undeniable,” the text warns in one of its sections.

El juicio de Sebastián Marset fue postergado para el próximo 1 de julio.

Sebastián Marset was expelled from the country on March 13 of this year. Photo: Red Uno

Marset and the “Turning Point”

The document also addresses the capture of Uruguayan drug trafficker Sebastián Marset on March 13 in Santa Cruz, an event it considers a “turning point” in Bolivia’s anti-drug fight.

The investigation argues that Marset’s arrest took place within the framework of a new stage of international cooperation promoted by the government of Rodrigo Paz and the United States.

“The Shield of the Americas is making our region safer and stronger,” the report quotes from a U.S. State Department statement.

Likewise, it mentions that President Rodrigo Paz described the capture as “a historic event” and “the beginning of a series of actions” against organized crime.

Police Reform and International Cooperation

Finally, the study argues that Bolivia faces the challenge of rebuilding its security strategy through a profound reform of the Police, the Justice system, and international cooperation mechanisms.

“It is not possible to improve public security or strengthen the fight against crime without a strong, modern, professional, and honest Police force,” the document states.

The report concludes that the country must simultaneously confront drug trafficking, illegal mining, money laundering, and institutional corruption in order to recover state control and strengthen democratic governance.

Read the full document at the following link:

Analysis No. 41. Bolivia. The Political Economy of Illicit Markets and Transnational Criminality

by Arturo Aliaga

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