A Divided Nation or the Elusive Bolivian Identity | Una nación bifurcada o la elusiva identidad boliviana

By Henry Oporto, Brújula Digital:

To mark the 200th anniversary of Bolivia’s foundingBrújula Digital presents its Bicentennial Special—a pluralistic journey through the many layers that shape the country’s history, identity, and future. This collection includes 17 essays by the nation’s most prominent analysts, published here.

Recently, former president and historian Carlos Mesa drew a parallel between the political crisis of 1925, on the eve of the Republic’s Centennial, and today’s crisis of economic hardship and political uncertainty—a century later, as the Bicentennial arrives. These moments of trauma reveal Bolivia’s chronic difficulties in managing government transitions. They also highlight the deep-rooted societal conflicts that remain unresolved—sometimes simmering beneath the surface, sometimes overt.

Indeed, Bolivia reaches its Bicentennial amid a profound, multifaceted crisis with dark clouds on the horizon. The country faces critical dilemmas: the end of one political cycle and the onset of another, still undefined. In this uncertain moment, it is crucial that the implosion of the populist, autocratic regime that has dominated for nearly two decades does not blind us to the nature of the challenges ahead. This essay focuses on Bolivia’s crisis of national identity and the cultural and ideological roots of the polarization that has intensified since the early 2000s. It paints a picture of a fractured society—ethnically and culturally divided, politically strained, socially fragmented, regionally split, and lacking a unifying national vision. To make matters worse, this fracture is compounded by a growing dispersion and fragmentation of political representation that threatens governability.

My core thesis is that overcoming these issues requires returning to the historic goal of consolidating a Bolivian nation: a national community that identifies itself as such and acts accordingly—above narrower ethnic, class-based, regional, corporate, religious, gender, or other identities. Reinvigorating the process of nation-building and strengthening a shared Bolivian identity is essential to enabling a second democratic transition and laying the foundation for a renewed development project based on modernity, social cohesion, and integration into the global community. This, in turn, raises the crucial question of how to forge a new social contract—one that enables constructive coexistence through order, legality, dialogue, and basic consensus, without which no sustainable development can occur.

Two Bolivias

The “Two Bolivias” metaphor is a useful lens to rethink the country’s problems, dilemmas, and challenges. It reflects a deeply fractured society marked by conflict and disconnect among its social, political, and regional actors. One Bolivia is formed around the urban middle and upper classes, the formal and entrepreneurial economy, and the emerging regional forces (especially from Santa Cruz) and their spheres of influence. The other Bolivia revolves around rural, Indigenous, and provincial populations, the cholo-mestizo urban classes—especially in the western regions—and the large Aymara city of El Alto.

One Bolivia tends to align with values of modernity and republican tradition—favoring political and economic freedom, individual initiative, private enterprise, and integration into the global economy. The other Bolivia clings more to communitarian traditions and ethnic-corporate identities; its daily life revolves around the informal economy, where poverty is most prevalent. Yet, within this second Bolivia, a new popular middle class and prosperous cholo-Indigenous entrepreneurs have emerged, challenging the old elites.

This fracture and polarization have historical and cultural roots dating back to colonial times and the Republic’s early formation. Beneath it lies a weak national identity. Bolivian identity is challenged by narrower, more particular identities—ethnic, regional, or corporate—that tend to be inward-looking and prone to fragmentation, nurturing centrifugal forces. Bolivia has repeatedly felt the consequences.

The national identity crisis has been deepened by the rise of identity politics and multiculturalism in Bolivia since the early 2000s, driven by Indigenous movements and radical left-wing groups that replaced class struggle with struggles between cultures and ethnic groups. Identity politics peaked when the MAS (Movement for Socialism) came to power. Ethno-nationalist discourse became the official ideology of an autocratic, corporatist regime—a discourse that questions the very foundations of the Republic and denies the existence and legitimacy of the Bolivian Nation. MAS’s project aimed to “refound Bolivia” based on ethnic and socio-cultural diversity, under the dominance of self-proclaimed representatives of Indigenous peoples and social movements. This is the ideological foundation of the plurinational state.

Simultaneously, the identity crisis has been fueled by emerging regionalist and intellectual currents that advocate for exclusionary regional identities (such as some versions of cruceñismo, or Santa Cruz regionalism), often as a reaction to MAS’s ethnic nationalism—though these ideas have deeper historical roots.

This situation is typical of societies that never fully succeeded in forming a nation-state, or only did so partially or inconsistently. These countries often suffer from internal conflict, including civil wars, and unresolved national questions—such as defining a national identity, achieving cultural and territorial integration, and building a legitimate, capable state with the resources to perform essential societal functions. Bolivia shows clear evidence of an incomplete nation-building process, a fragile social fabric, and a stark deficit in social cohesion. This explains why the country struggles so deeply to establish a framework for peaceful coexistence, political stability, and effective governance.

Why National Identity Matters

Despite two centuries as an independent state, the construction of the Bolivian Nation—and consequently of a true national state—remains incomplete. That’s why I believe revisiting the project of nation-building is a major imperative for today’s Bolivians. Let me expand:

First, there is grave danger in having lost sight of nation-building. If Bolivians fail to reclaim a sense of national unity—a shared identity and a collective vision of the future—the current polarization and fragmentation may become permanent. A logic of confrontation between the Two Bolivias may dominate, with mutual blockage and endless deadlock becoming the norm. The result: a chaotic, unstable, dysfunctional country, plagued by ungovernability and an uncertain destiny.

Second, revaluing national identity is essential to rebuilding the state. Bolivia’s state is weak and inefficient, lacking even basic institutional competence. The country needs a legitimate, respected, and functional state—one that ensures order, authority, rule of law, justice, education, healthcare, social protection, environmental preservation, and constitutional rights.

Third, national identity is the social glue of cohesion. It facilitates communication, economic exchange, and trust-building—helping create the social capital that allows individuals to be judged on their merit rather than affiliations.

Fourth, national identity is vital for reclaiming public policy as a common good. It is essential to restore the notion of the public interest in governance and to rescue public administration from corporate, clientelist capture. Only then will politicians and officials act with true civic commitment, prioritizing national interests above personal, family, group, or sectoral interests—as is not currently the case.

In short, reaffirming the idea of a Bolivian Nation should be the cornerstone of a new political and developmental project.

A New Social Contract

To restart the nation-building process, a new social contract is essential—between Bolivians, and between the state, citizens, and regions. The outgoing political cycle leaves a country divided, embittered, and at risk of chaotic decline and ungovernability. That’s why Bolivia urgently needs a new national majority: a broad, dynamic coalition of forces and interests capable of guiding a democratic way out of the crisis and driving forward the economic, social, and political reforms now on the national agenda.

This social contract means building broad consensus on the country’s economic direction, political restructuring, restoration of the rule of law, judicial reform, and other foundational issues. It assumes political, social, and regional actors have the will and vision to forge these major agreements. And yes—it requires visionary and strategic leadership capable of shepherding these efforts.

Today’s crisis may, in fact, offer a historic opportunity to resolve one of Bolivia’s greatest dilemmas: forging a new national self-understanding.

Henry Oporto is a sociologist, development expert, and director of the Fundación Milenio.

[i] The May 1925 elections were won by the ruling-party candidate José Gabino Villanueva. However, in August, Congress annulled the election (at the behest of President Bautista Saavedra himself) and instead appointed Felipe Segundo Guzmán as interim president—an interim marked by countless tensions, until new elections were held in December, in which Hernando Siles was elected.

[ii] I first presented this thesis in the article “Two Bolivias? The Crisis of National Identity and the National Question,” in Ideas & Debate, No. 13, October 2023, FUNDEP.

[iii] On the role of national identity in social coexistence, Yuval N. Harari has observed, for example, that people feel committed to elections when they share a basic bond with the majority of voters: “If other voters’ experiences are foreign to me, and I believe they don’t understand my feelings or care about my vital interests, I will have no reason whatsoever to accept the result if I lose the vote—even if it’s by a hundred to one. In general, democratic elections only work within populations that already share some bond, such as common religious beliefs or national myths. They are a method of resolving disagreements among people who already agree on basic things.” Harari: Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow. Debate, 2021, p. 279.

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