Salty Life: The Silent Struggle of the Weenhayek | Salada vida: el drama silencioso de los Weenhayek

By Yenny Escalante y Felicidad Alarcón, Sumando Voces:

Freddy Cortez, a Weenhayek indigenous man. Photos: Yenny Escalante

Freddy Cortez doesn’t complain about the heat. Even though the thermometer reads 38°C and the sun beats down mercilessly on the Bolivian Chaco, he’s used to enduring even higher temperatures, which are typical of the area. The skin on his face, etched with deep lines like cracks, seems to carry the memory of drought, dust, and time. He’s 58 years old, belongs to the Weenhayek indigenous people from the Capirendita community in the municipality of Villa Montes, Tarija, and for the past four years, he has been surviving with kidney failure.

“They told me it’s because of high blood pressure, but I still keep wondering why I got sick,” he says, trying to understand the root of his condition. Freddy is one of the most visible — and resilient — faces of a disease that spreads slowly and silently.

Water tanks used to store water.

While some say it’s hypertension, others believe the water — or the lack of it — played a role. In reality, it seems to be a combination of factors: a region that’s increasingly hotter, long droughts, torrential rains, water sources of uncertain quality, and areas plagued with salty water. But the State has yet to show interest in investigating the exact causes. As a result, they are forced to live with that uncertainty.

In the face of this governmental inaction, the Center for Regional Studies for the Development of Tarija (CERDET) conducted a study published in 2020. Its conclusions are clear and specific: the water consumed by some Weenhayek communities contains excess sodium, sulfates, and other elements.

“The Weenhayek communities located along the Pilcomayo River, especially the further downstream toward the southeast, have increasingly saline or hard water. From Crevaux down (toward Argentina), sulfate salts are more common and harder to remove, since they make up what’s known as permanent hardness,” the study concludes.

This finding is confirmed again in 2025 by the institution’s director, Guido Cortez, who states that the situation has not changed. “It has been found that there are problems, especially excess salts and sulfates, which often render the water undrinkable, but people still consume it. Over the years, it causes certain health issues,” he says.

This is not a new problem — salty water has long been characteristic of the region. Martha Mancilla, a city dweller from the municipality of Tarija who lived in Villa Montes in the late ’90s, remembers having to collect rainwater in buckets to cook, since the tap water, which “seemed potable,” was salty. “The food would come out extremely salty; I think that water came from wells,” she recalls.

But in her case, her visits to the Chaco region were brief, just for vacations. The Weenhayek, on the other hand, have no choice — that is their land, and they have nowhere else to go; it’s where they were born and raised, just like their parents, grandparents, and ancestors.  

A mother and her child outside their home in Capirendita.
Indigenous residents of the Capirendita community.

Freddy has plenty of reasons to worry. According to the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), an estimated 1.89 million deaths per year are linked to sodium consumption, which causes high blood pressure. That condition alone was responsible for 10.8 million deaths in 2019. For this reason, the international body recommends consuming less than 5 grams of salt per day. However, “in the Americas, people consume up to three times that amount, and all age groups — even children — are affected.”

Excess salt causes hypertension; hypertension leads to kidney problems.

The issue of salty water knows no geographic boundaries, warns Guido Cortez, director of Cerdet. “This is a general trend throughout the Chaco — in Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia. I’m not just talking about the Tarija region. It’s a regional phenomenon. The water is increasingly salty, animals often refuse to drink it, and if you use it for irrigation, it can dry out plants due to its high salt content,” he explains.

But although the water is not salty in every area where the Weenhayek live, as the Cerdet study also shows, why are some people still developing kidney disease or high blood pressure?

Dr. Fabricio Fernández Loza, an internal medicine specialist in nephrology and kidney transplantation, explains that the environment in which these communities live poses a high risk to their kidney health. “These populations are exposed to very high temperatures and likely have insufficient fluid intake. That can lead to acute kidney disease which, if not treated in time, becomes chronic kidney disease — where the damage is irreversible,” he explains.

Fernández notes that a person should consume 1.5 to 2 liters of water per day, but in hot climates, that amount should be higher due to greater dehydration.

Beyond Bolivia’s borders, this disease has already left its mark. Fernández recalls similar phenomena recorded in Central America, known as Mesoamerican nephropathy: agricultural workers with no history of hypertension or diabetes developed kidney damage after years of exposure to extreme heat and chronic dehydration. “It was found that the common factor was sustained lack of hydration, which over time caused permanent damage to the kidneys.”

Thus, multiple factors contribute to this problem. Scientific studies have not yet reached Freddy’s community, but he wants to know for sure whether the water he drinks contains excess salts, like in other villages — and whether the culprit of his illness is the water he drinks daily or the insufficient amount of it.

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Villa Montes is nestled in the Gran Chaco province in southern Bolivia, near the border with Argentina and Paraguay. In addition to city dwellers, it is home to three indigenous peoples: Guaraní, Tapiete, and Weenhayek — the latter with a population of approximately 3,500 people who live in areas near the Pilcomayo River.

Here, climate change is not just a perception. The National Service of Meteorology and Hydrology (Senamhi) has recorded a progressive increase in temperatures over the past decade. And as the heat intensifies, access to safe water declines.

Since 2019, drought has worsened in the Bolivian Chaco, according to Senamhi data. The yellow areas indicate weak drought intensity, which has noticeably increased since 2019. Chart: Senamhi.

On February 17, 2016, Villa Montes hit a record high of 46°C.

This chart shows the average temperatures recorded in Villa Montes, reaching up to 46.7°C. Chart: Climate Data.

Fourteen people live in Freddy’s home: his children, daughters-in-law, and grandchildren. They rely on weekly cistern deliveries from the Autonomous Regional Government of Villa Montes. The water is stored in containers, but with the oppressive heat and the number of people at home, it’s not always enough to last seven days. “Sometimes it runs out in three days,” he says, resigned, as he looks at the black tank at the entrance of his house.

It’s the end of March, rainy season, but the heat presses down with suffocating force, making sweat drip endlessly from foreheads. The air feels still, heavy. Under these conditions, every drop of water counts, and there’s not always enough even to drink — rainwater is absorbed immediately by the soil.

Extreme heat, intensified by climate change and deforestation, is pushing the Chaco ecosystem to a breaking point, warns environmental analyst Stasiek Czaplicki. Consecutive years of drought, increasingly long dry seasons, and the growing risk of devastating fires threaten not only biodiversity but also indigenous communities. These extreme conditions make their survival difficult, forcing them to migrate and lose their livelihoods, languages, and systems of organization. “It’s a silent form of cultural extinction,” the expert concludes.

The Bolivian Chaco has been one of the main hotspots of deforestation in recent decades — Czaplicki continues — especially since 2008. Since then, around half a million hectares of forest have been lost, primarily due to agricultural expansion by Mennonite colonies. This massive loss has had serious consequences: the ecosystem has lost its ability to absorb water. Between 2008 and 2023, the area of surface water — which results directly from rainfall — has nearly halved. Although rains increased in 2024, the damage is already so deep that the ecosystem can no longer retain or regenerate with that water, like a parched plant that doesn’t come back to life with just one sporadic watering.

The lack of potable water in communities like Capirendita pushes residents to drink sodas and processed juices, which are cheaper but loaded with sugar. This change in habits is causing a rise in diabetes cases — a disease that, over time, can lead to kidney failure. This is the warning of Dr. Humberto Delgado, head of epidemiology at the Villa Montes Health Network, and nephrologist Fabricio Fernández from La Paz. Both agree that the excessive consumption of sugary drinks is affecting even children and teenagers. “There are already people with diabetes in this (Weenhayek) population,” Delgado notes.

According to Alia Flores, a doctor at the Capirendita Health Center, there is only one patient with chronic (severe) kidney disease who is undergoing dialysis treatment, and there are 27 diabetics. Although the official number is low, Freddy remembers more cases. He says his brother died from kidney disease, as did a friend from another Weenhayek community. Both began dialysis treatment in the city of Tarija — five to six hours from Villa Montes — but died in the process.

Today, in Villa Montes, the hospital has a dialysis center. But for those living in remote communities, getting there isn’t easy—it requires time, money, and energy. “I get on my motorcycle and go, but others can’t do that. It’s an expensive illness,” says Freddy. That’s why others don’t even start the process: they simply can’t.

Kidney disease is insidious. Nephrologist Fabricio Fernández sums it up this way: “Unfortunately, it’s a silent disease in the sense that it gives no warning, there are no symptoms, or the symptoms are nonspecific. They’re essentially high-cost diseases, mainly caused by diabetes mellitus and hypertension.” Both are increasingly common among the Weenhayek.

Kidney patients by population size in each municipality, according to the 2024 INE census

Kidney patients in Tarija

Villa Montes has, on average, 70 kidney patients per 10,000 inhabitants.

Water: suitable or unsuitable for human consumption?

Around noon, a water truck drives along the dusty road to deliver water to the Weenhayek. “I don’t know where they get it from, but look at the color,” says Freddy, showing a clear glass that reveals yellowish water. Next to it, another glass filled with bottled water shows a clear tone. The difference is obvious and the question is clear: is it fit for human consumption?

“The kids don’t even have time to boil it. Sometimes they drink it straight,” says Freddy while sitting under a leafy carob tree planted in the middle of his yard.

“Sometimes the water comes with little bugs, and there’s nothing we can do, we have to drink it like that, because we have no other option,” says one of Freddy’s daughters.

Hundreds of years ago, the Capirendita community, like many others settled along the Pilcomayo River, depended on the river to survive. Although it was historically their source of life, today the river is unpredictable. In addition to the presence of heavy metals—such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, iron, boron, bromine, manganese, mercury, nickel, silver, zinc, and selenium, according to Acceso Investigativo—it sometimes overflows, as it did this year, wiping out gardens and homes and isolating Indigenous families. Other times, its flow drops dramatically, wiping out the shoals of sábalo, their main daily food source.

Today, their only option is the water delivered by the municipal government, either by tanker truck or pipeline. But health impacts don’t take long to appear. “What they do is consume non-potable water from cisterns or tanks they supply themselves, or that authorities distribute for consumption,” explains Betty Janina Arroyo Calvetti, coordinator of the Villamontes Health Network. She adds that while boiling water before drinking is recommended, in practice “most people don’t do it.”

The water for this district comes from a well located in Capirendita, according to Saidu Valenzuela, Secretary of Public Works of the Villa Montes Regional Government, who adds that it’s drawn with tankers and distributed to each community. “The issue of the storage tank and cleaning is up to them (…) the well can’t possibly have any contaminants because the water comes directly from the wellhead, it’s filtered and has no harmful components,” he assures. However, he admits that no water study has been carried out, and the community would have to request one.

Wilfredo Ligaron, head of the municipal workshop unit, says that the water from wells in Capirendita and Tres Pozos—serving District 5 (Capirendita, Resistencias, Tres Pozos, and Garrobal)—receives no treatment because he believes it doesn’t need any, saying, “it’s guaranteed.” His confidence in the quality of the water appears unshakable. He says that for 15 years, they’ve been extracting water from those wells to supply the Weenhayek, either through pipes or by cisterns into their storage tanks. Meanwhile, the uncertainty of this Indigenous people continues to unfold daily across the arid Chaco landscape.

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Alia Flores Serrano, doctor at the Capirendita health center, warns that the water distributed by the municipality is not always consumed safely and can cause illnesses. If you add poor eating habits, lack of hygiene—such as limited handwashing—and a deficient diet, conditioned by the economic precarity of many families, the result will be diarrhea; during the first 16 weeks of 2025, 22 cases were treated.

Capirendita Health Center, located in the municipality of Villa Montes, Tarija.

In addition to treatment, they offer guidance on preventive measures at home: boil water before drinking, wash food thoroughly, and maintain proper hygiene. However, in a context of scarcity and extreme heat, these recommendations are not always easy to follow.

On the subject, the head of Epidemiology for the Villa Montes Health Network, Humberto Delgado, explains that acute diarrheal diseases are still present in communities on the right bank of the Pilcomayo River. He reports that between January and March 2025, health facilities in the region reported a total of 81 cases, based on data collected through weekly monitoring.

Epidemiology report from the Villa Montes Health Network. Chart: Own elaboration.

“On average, we’re talking about one case per day across the region, which is relatively low,” Delgado notes, though he clarifies that there may be more cases that go unreported because they’re mild or self-limiting.

The promised solutions haven’t arrived. “There are always projects, but they never carry them out,” Freddy laments. “They say they’ll bring clean water, install pipes, but they haven’t done anything yet.”

Amid all this precariousness, the Weenhayek keep resisting. Some make a living from fishing, others from wild honey or selling crafts. Freddy raised nine children, some are musicians, others work in radio. He says he’s not afraid of the future because he trusts them. “Our savings aren’t in the bank. They’re in our children. They’ll take care of me when I can’t anymore,” he says with a mix of pride and resignation.

Life in the Chaco is becoming increasingly difficult. The combination of extreme heat, a shortage of potable water, and institutional neglect has created a perfect storm that threatens to wipe out both the health—and the hope—of an ancestral people. Freddy, with his motorcycle and his smile, still goes to his checkups. And though he suspects the water, or lack thereof, made him sick, it hasn’t taken away his will to live.

Rainwater harvesting: an effective alternative

Behind the Buenos Aires school in the Lapachal community, a group of children play with laughter and light steps. One of them runs to find Samuel. Soon, in the distance, a hunched figure appears, leaning on a cane and wearing dark glasses. He walks guided by the teenager who went to get him, gently holding his arm. Samuel Torres Pérez can no longer see, but he still looks after his community. He is the communal leader and has been guiding them for nearly two decades, backed by the experience of his years and struggles.

About 30 families—roughly 200 people—live in Lapachal. Samuel recalls that when they arrived nearly 19 years ago, water scarcity was a constant threat. “We had about 190 goats, and two or three would die every day, even up to five, from lack of water,” he recounts. The situation was critical, with drought destroying both animals and hope. That’s when he mobilized for support and secured a rainwater harvesting project led by the Center for Regional Studies for the Development of Tarija (Cerdet).

Inspired by successful experiences in northeastern Brazil, the project adapted low-cost technologies to capture and store rainwater using the school roof, intended for human consumption. A 52,000-liter cistern was built, which, thanks to a solar-powered filtration system, provides potable water to all the families in the community. But even before that, they had received a 20,000-liter tank.

The collected water is purified. “It’s like mineral water,” says Samuel as he opens the tap. Thus, Cerdet director Guido Cortez showed that with a relatively low investment and technical support, it’s possible to guarantee safe water, lasting at least six months a year—stored fresh in sealed tanks that prevent dirt, insects, or debris from entering.

The experience has transformed daily life for these families. While other communities continue to depend on brackish wells or sporadic rainfall, Lapachal achieved relative water autonomy, which was later replicated in Chimeo and Yacuiba. However, six years after this successful implementation, its expansion to other areas depends on the political will of municipalities—which has yet to arrive.

“I believe it’s a clear solution… you end up with water exclusively for human consumption… you ensure that the water being consumed won’t make people sick,” explains Cortez.

Beyond its technical impact, the project has restored dignity and hope to communities facing daily scarcity, contamination, and neglect. Rainwater harvesting not only improves health but opens up the possibility for productive activities, better nutrition, and reduced forced migration.

Unlike Samuel, who has water for long periods, Freddy waits week after week for water to arrive—but essentially, he waits for a bigger change that will allow him to leap toward a dignified life.

Under the shade of the carob tree, he sings. He does so softly, as if speaking to the Pilcomayo—the river that once brought water, fish, and life. In his song, there is no sadness, only resilience. And in that land, that too is a form of hope.


This report was produced with the collaboration of the communications strategy project of the Fundación para el Periodismo and with the support of South South North, Fundación Avina, WWF, and Voices for Just Climate Action.

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