Who Was Responsible for Triggering the Chaco War? | ¿Quién fue el culpable del estallido de la Guerra del Chaco?

By Raul Rivero, Brujula Digital:

Once the Bolivian people learned of this disaster, they soon took to the streets and demanded reprisals, which were carried out with the capture of the enemy fortines Toledo, Corrales, and Boquerón. The spark of the war had been lit.

A group of soldiers in the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay (1930–1935). Photo RRSS.

Days ago, researcher Roberto Laserna conducted a closed survey among a group of historians, asking who the five worst presidents of Bolivia were. From the results obtained, I observed with indignation that, out of prejudiced ignorance or bad faith, most respondents placed Hilarión Daza and Daniel Salamanca at the same level of disgrace, accusing them of having led the country into two separate wars: the former, into the War of the Pacific, and the latter, into the Chaco War.

From the outset, comparing these two figures is nonsensical. Daza was a military man of limited training who rose through the army ranks thanks to his boldness and lack of scruples, eventually seizing power by overthrowing President Tomás Frías in 1876. Salamanca, on the other hand, was a lawyer by profession and highly knowledgeable in economics; he had held various positions in public administration in which he always demonstrated ability and integrity, and he assumed the presidency through democratic election.

Now, let us look at how the war in the southeastern part of the country was unleashed, as I note in the first volume of my work El gobierno de Daniel Salamanca (1931–1934) [GAMC-Plural, 2022].

Once the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1904 was approved by the Bolivian Congress —Salamanca was one of those who voted against it—, ceding the department of the Litoral to Chile, some voices arose proposing that Bolivia should stop looking toward the Pacific and instead seek an outlet for our natural and industrial resources through the Atlantic. The most influential voices were those of Patiño and Salamanca.

While the mining magnate proposed doing so through the Madeira River and the Amazon —for which he unsuccessfully attempted to build a railway from Cochabamba to Villa Bella—, the politician proposed doing so via the Paraguay River and, taking Jaime Mendoza’s phrase “we must tread firmly in the Chaco,” advocated that it was essential to develop a vigorous colonization plan in order to secure sovereignty over the disputed territory with our southeastern neighbor.

However, upon assuming the presidency in March 1931, Salamanca found the State’s coffers completely empty, not only due to the chronic poverty of the public treasury, but also because of the effects of the Great Depression on our meager exports.

Aware of this, the President ordered the army command to avoid any provocation in the disputed territory that could trigger an armed conflict, since Bolivia would not have the financial resources to sustain a war. Instead, he decided to carry out a conservative plan of penetration into the Chaco, prioritizing the construction of roads and some fortines in locations not previously occupied by the southeastern rival and that would bring us closer to the longed-for outlet via the Paraguay River; but to build a fortín, it was essential that the chosen site have water.

With this aim, he secured the cooperation of Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano so that its aircraft could carry out aerial missions over the yet unknown territory in search of bodies of water. In one of these flights, in July 1931, the plane piloted by LAB manager Hermann Schroth spotted a body of water of 600×200 meters; however, although a couple of land expeditions were dispatched, they were unable to find it.

Yet, in April 1932, during a reconnaissance flight to define a route for the Fourth Army Division to advance, Major Jorge Jordán and his companion Major Oscar Moscoso located that lagoon and, as David Alvéstegui notes: “from the discovery of the Great Lake onward, the military information provided to the president began to turn murky” (Alvéstegui, Salamanca, T3. Ed. Canelas: 373–74).

Although the map included in the observers’ report indicated the presence of a Paraguayan fortín on the edge of the lake —which the Paraguayans called “Pitiantuta”—, the map produced by the Army General Staff suppressed that detail and said nothing about any likely Paraguayan military presence on its shores, labeling the structures as “savage encampments.”

Although Salamanca told General Filiberto Osorio, Chief of General Staff, that it seemed to him that it was a military fortín and that the site should be avoided, Osorio insisted on his position and, as I write: “Confident in having misled the President, the need to seize that body of water, and surely the belief that, should a new confrontation with Paraguayan troops occur, it would be merely one more of the many incidents suffered and overcome in recent years, Osorio and the officers surrounding him in the General Staff did not delay in taking a risky decision” [Rivero, Ibid.: 141]: they ordered the occupation of the so-called “Laguna Grande.”

As if the fates of war had conspired to hasten events, at that same time a draft proposal from the Washington Conference —formed by neutral countries after the Vanguardia fortín incidents in December 1928— arrived in La Paz, proposing that the most advanced positions reached by the opposing armies in the Chaco serve as the starting point for fixing the new border between Bolivia and Paraguay.

Foreseeing that any arbitral negotiation might begin from those limits, Osorio and his circle saw even greater urgency in capturing that lagoon, which was about 170 kilometers from Fortín Camacho, so on May 28, Major Moscoso departed from Camacho in that direction accompanied by three non-commissioned officers and 25 soldiers.

“In the afternoon of June 14, 1932, Major Oscar Moscoso and his detachment reached the shore of the Great Lake, finding that the sheds he and the aircraft pilot had observed on its shores were part of a Paraguayan fortín, as the major had warned during the aerial reconnaissance 50 days earlier; this military post was taken by the Bolivian forces at dawn the following day after a brief exchange of fire. As Salamanca emphasizes in his memoirs: ‘the news hit me like an unexpected bolt of lightning,’ causing him great distress, since from the very start of the Chaco occupation campaign he had recommended restraint in Bolivian advances in Chaco territory” [Rivero, Ibid.: 145].

According to Joaquín Espada —then Minister of Finance—, who witnessed the encounter, Osorio, “with a gloomy and worried face,” informed the president about the capture of Pitiantuta, provoking the following reaction: “Who gave the order for that occupation against my repeated and categorical recommendations to avoid friction with the enemy?

Deeply distressed he exclaimed: ‘This is the darkest day for Bolivia!’ He reacted energetically with these words: “Order the immediate evacuation of Pitiantuta by Moscoso’s troops.”

Although Salamanca demanded that the reports written by Moscoso and Major Murillo, assistant to Colonel Enrique Peñaranda —then acting commander of the Fourth Division— be immediately sent to him, he only received fragments and the complete documentation only arrived on August 10.

Pressed by Peñaranda and other officers unwilling to lose the valuable body of water, Osorio visited the president again and proposed that the Bolivian troops leave the captured fortín and move to the opposite shore —the western one— without attempting further contact with the Paraguayans.

Salamanca rejected that suggestion and insisted that Moscoso and his men abandon the place. On the 17th, the Chief of General Staff sent cipher 770: “Under no circumstances is it convenient for us to provoke encounters or be the aggressors. Situation could create serious difficulties for Washington negotiations.”

Ignoring that instruction, two days later Peñaranda ordered Moscoso —because of the utmost importance of the Great Lake, which the major had renamed “Laguna Chuquisaca”— to build a fortín and name it “Mariscal Santa Cruz”; he also ordered him to completely destroy the rival’s post and “everything that could serve as recognition material for Paraguay, constructing instead buildings that may demonstrate our occupation” [Alvéstegui, Ibid.: 386]; furthermore, he committed to opening a trail to the site and warned him to take necessary measures “so as not to be surprised by the enemy.”

To further scorn the presidential order, on June 19 Peñaranda “[R]eceived the following instruction from the General Staff in La Paz, unknown to the president and flagrantly contrary to his orders: ‘Given the need to retain Great Lake and the order of abandonment given by the presrepública, it is urgent that you protest in the name of the officers and your command.’

He complied hastily with that request from his immediate superiors” [Rivero, Ibid.: 151]. Years later, and as a result of a dispute with Roberto Querejazu, Peñaranda justified his actions by claiming that, out of “obedience and discipline,” he carried out the orders of Osorio. As Alvéstegui correctly notes: “This strange concept of obedience and discipline is surprising, in which an order from the General Staff would be above another issued by the commander-in-chief of the army; meaning ‘that the president of the republic may be disobeyed without the slightest scruple.’” [Rivero, Ibid.: 153].

“The above allows us to appreciate how widely divergent the objectives and expectations of the government and the army were regarding the penetration and retention of the largest possible area of territory in the Chaco. For the military command, it made no sense to promote the occupation of an area with harsh physical and climatic conditions without securing, for example, the possession of such a vital element as water, although without fully evaluating the grave risk involved in insisting on occupying areas where the likelihood of conflict with the enemy was very high” [Rivero, Ibid.: 157–58].

After a first failed attempt by Paraguayan troops to recover their fortín on June 29, called by them “Solano López,” a week later the military leaders delivered a written statement to Salamanca insisting on the need to keep Laguna Chuquisaca.

The president’s response to Osorio was very clear, pointing out the impossibility of such a desire, giving a lesson on what his view was regarding Bolivia’s rights over that disputed territory:

“In the complex problem of the Chaco, aside from the military aspect, which is the most important, we must attend to the international aspect and its possible consequences. Thus, under the military aspect, our occupation of Laguna Grande has the importance you have indicated and should give rise to the measures you also indicate, with perfect reason, within that concept.”

“But if we consider the international consequences of our occupation of Laguna Grande, the whole picture changes and becomes disastrously adverse to our cause. It gives rise or pretext for interrupting the Non-Aggression Pact, for spreading throughout the continent the fear of war, and for determining international pressure that would force us into a disadvantageous treaty. (…) Before closing this reply, I wish to briefly note my view on the objective that, in your opinion, should be pursued in the Chaco issue.”

“You reduce that objective to the acquisition of Fuerte Olimpo, which is precisely, according to my recollection, the only point on the western bank of the river over which Paraguay can claim a title of possession prior to Independence. For my part, I have believed that Bolivian policy should not be limited to the acquisition of a port nor even a small portion on the Paraguay River. This limitation of our objective is the unfortunate result of half a century of impotence and neglect in our policy which, absorbed by its internal difficulties and focused only on the Pacific, abandoned our interests and rights in the Atlantic basin.”

“Thus, the belief has taken root in the Americas that Bolivia needs only a port on the Paraguay River, while Paraguay needs territories. So often have I encountered this deeply rooted notion that I have understood how difficult it will be to destroy or modify it, in order to frame the Chaco question around the Chaco itself, setting as the aim of our international policy the recovery of the entire territory, if possible, or at least the greatest portion of that domain (…) On the contrary, I fear greatly that due to forces you know well, they will be inclined to settle the Chaco dispute in order to rid themselves of an annoying and costly concern.” [Rivero, Ibid.: 159–161].

As Alvéstegui rightly emphasizes: “Salamanca found himself alone in his pacifist stance.”

On July 15, Paraguayan troops again attacked Moscoso and his men, this time dislodging them from Laguna Chuquisaca. Once the Bolivian people learned of this disaster, they soon took to the streets and demanded reprisals, which were carried out with the capture of the enemy fortines Toledo, Corrales, and Boquerón. The spark of the war had been lit.

Raúl Rivero is an economist and writer.

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